Transcription, structure, and organoids translate time across the lifespan of humans and great apes

How the neural structures supporting human cognition developed and arose in evolution is an enduring question of interest. Yet, we still lack appropriate procedures to align ages across primates, and this lacuna has hindered progress in understanding the evolution of biological programs. We generated a dataset of unprecedented size consisting of 573 time points from abrupt and gradual changes in behavior, anatomy, and transcription across human and 8 nonhuman primate species. We included time points from diverse human populations to capture within-species variation in the generation of cross-species age alignments. We also extracted corresponding ages from organoids. The identification of corresponding ages across the lifespan of 8 primate species, including apes (e.g., orangutans, gorillas) and monkeys (i.e., marmosets, macaques), reveals that some biological pathways are extended in humans compared with some nonhuman primates. Notably, the human lifespan is unusually extended relative to studied nonhuman primates demonstrating that very old age is a phase of life in humans that does not map to other studied primate species. More generally, our work prompts a reevaluation in the choice of a model system to understand aging given very old age in humans is a period of life without a clear counterpart in great apes.