Liberal and Illiberal Islamophobias

In recent years we have seen a rise in suspicion and hate directed at Muslims and Islam across Europe and North America. It has manifested in a wide variety of ways, from hate speech, hate crimes and far-right activism, to more insidious forms of systemic and state racism, such as surveillance, profiling and attempted travel and clothing bans. Added to these, we have also witnessed a rise of Islamophobic discourse based on the defence of traditionally progressive tropes such as free speech, secularism and women’s rights. In addition to this, we have seen ongoing difficulties and debates over how to define this phenomenon, as Islamophobia or anti-Muslim racism, and the evolving nature of racism, which anti-Muslim discourses have in part fed on and utilised.