Leader-follower value congruence: A systematic review of the literature and a future research agenda

Leadership research has increasingly explored the alignment of values between leaders and follo­wers—commonly referred to as leader–follower value congruence. This review critically examines the theoretical foundations, methodological approaches, and empirical findings associated with this construct. We distinguish between perceived and actual value congruence, identifying a disproportionate focus on perceived congruence (60.19%) and less of a focus on actual congruence (37.86%), with only two studies looking at both perceived and actual congruence (1.94%). While both forms assess value alignment, they differ in how they are measured and
conceptualized. Perceived congruence—typically assessed through follower self-reports—is closely tied to rela­tional and attitudinal outcomes yet suffers from conceptual ambiguity and endogeneity bias. In contrast, actual congruence—captured through direct comparisons of leader and follower value profiles—offers more objective insights but remains underutilized. Drawing from the self–other agreement literature, we propose new typo­logical frameworks that consider not only the presence or absence of congruence, but also the accuracy of alignment perceptions. We argue that perceived and actual value congruence are distinct but interrelated con­structs whose interaction may shape leadership processes in unique ways. By clarifying these distinctions this review lays the groundwork for a more integrated and methodologically rigorous research agenda on value (mis)alignment in leadership.