Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective

Garafallia Daroglou; Vassilis Barkoukis; Lukas R. W.  Fairs; John Toner; Luke Jones; John L. Perry; Andrei V. Micle; Nikolaos C. Theodorou; Sabina  Shakhverdieva; Marius Stoicescu; Constantin Pompiliu-Nicolae; Milica V. Vesic; Nenad Dikic; Marija  Andjelkovic; Jesus Munoz-Guerra Revilla; Elena Garcia Grimau; Miguel A. Martinez; Javier Argaya Amigo; Anne Schomoller; Adam R. Nicholls

doi:10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181

Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective

Garafallia Daroglou
, Vassilis Barkoukis
, Lukas R. W. Fairs
, John Toner
, Luke Jones
, John L. Perry
, Andrei V. Micle
, Nikolaos C. Theodorou
, Sabina Shakhverdieva
, Marius Stoicescu
, Constantin Pompiliu-Nicolae
, Milica V. Vesic
, Nenad Dikic
, Marija Andjelkovic
, Jesus Munoz-Guerra Revilla
, Elena Garcia Grimau
, Miguel A. Martinez
, Javier Argaya Amigo
, Anne Schomoller
, Adam R. Nicholls

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
University of Hull
University of Limerick
Romanian National Anti-Doping Agency
KEA Fair Play Code Hellas
National University of Physical Education and Sport
Anti-doping Agency of Serbia
Sports Medicine Associations of Serbia
Comisión Española para la Lucha Antidopaje en el Deporte
San Jorge University
Agencia Española para la Protección de la Salud en el Deporte (AEPSAD)
International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Abstract

Background
Doping in sports is a worldwide problem which affects the integrity of sports and can endanger the physical and psychological health of athletes. Whistleblowing represents a method for detecting doping offences that may otherwise have gone undetected, but our understanding of whistleblowing against doping offences is limited. The purpose of this paper was to identify whether personal and social psychological variables were associated with intentions to report doping in sport.
Method
1146 active athletes aged ≥15 years, regularly training and participating in competitions participated to the study. Athletes were informed about study aims and gave informed consent. The sample completed measures related to organizational support, protection and costs of whistleblowing behaviours, justice/legitimacy, personal responsibility, group identification, similarity/favourability, personal benefits, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, and intentions. Internal consistency across multi-item scales was good to excellent (ω range 0.78–.96). Data were analysed using structural equation modeling.
Results
There were significant relationships between intentions and among perceived costs, benefits, personal factors, and organizational structures. The structural model fit was acceptable (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03) and showed that personal responsibility, group identification, and role-model favorability/similarity positively predicted perceived benefits, whereas organizational support/protection negatively predicted perceived costs. In turn, perceived benefits were associated with more positive attitudes and greater perceived behavioral control, which was the strongest direct predictor of whistleblowing intentions.
Conclusions
The findings underscore the complex interplay between personal and organizational factors in shaping attitudes and perceived behavioral control toward whistleblowing, ultimately influencing intentions.

Original language	English
Article number	100181
Journal	Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health
Volume	5
Early online date	11 Oct 2025
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181
Publication status	Published - 31 Dec 2025

Bibliographical note

Publisher Copyright:
© 2025

Funding

This article was funded by the European Commission's Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency [Unit A.6, Erasmus +: Sport, Youth and EU Aid Volunteers]. Project title: Understanding and promoting whistleblowing on doping irregularities in the EU (Win-Dop). Project reference number: 612968-EPP-1–2019–1-UK-SPO-SCP

Funders	Funder number
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency
European Commission	612968-EPP-1–2019–1-UK-SPO-SCP

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

SDG 3 Good Health and Well-being

Keywords

Attitudes
Doping
Intentions
Performance enhancing drugs
Whistleblowing

ASJC Scopus subject areas

Medicine (miscellaneous)
Clinical Psychology
Pharmacology
Drug Discovery
Psychiatry and Mental health

Access to Document

10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181Licence: CC BY-NC-ND

Cite this

Daroglou, G., Barkoukis, V., Fairs, L. R. W., Toner, J., Jones, L., Perry, J. L., Micle, A. V., Theodorou, N. C., Shakhverdieva, S., Stoicescu, M., Pompiliu-Nicolae, C., Vesic, M. V., Dikic, N., Andjelkovic, M., Munoz-Guerra Revilla, J., Garcia Grimau, E., Martinez, M. A., Argaya Amigo, J., Schomoller, A., & Nicholls, A. R. (2025). Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective. Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health, 5, Article 100181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181

Daroglou, G, Barkoukis, V, Fairs, LRW, Toner, J, Jones, L, Perry, JL, Micle, AV, Theodorou, NC, Shakhverdieva, S, Stoicescu, M, Pompiliu-Nicolae, C, Vesic, MV, Dikic, N, Andjelkovic, M, Munoz-Guerra Revilla, J, Garcia Grimau, E, Martinez, MA, Argaya Amigo, J, Schomoller, A & Nicholls, AR 2025, 'Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective', Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health, vol. 5, 100181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181

@article{0934e6e7e0654e61a07efc1469769867,

title = "Athletes{\textquoteright} Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective",

abstract = "Background Doping in sports is a worldwide problem which affects the integrity of sports and can endanger the physical and psychological health of athletes. Whistleblowing represents a method for detecting doping offences that may otherwise have gone undetected, but our understanding of whistleblowing against doping offences is limited. The purpose of this paper was to identify whether personal and social psychological variables were associated with intentions to report doping in sport. Method 1146 active athletes aged ≥15 years, regularly training and participating in competitions participated to the study. Athletes were informed about study aims and gave informed consent. The sample completed measures related to organizational support, protection and costs of whistleblowing behaviours, justice/legitimacy, personal responsibility, group identification, similarity/favourability, personal benefits, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, and intentions. Internal consistency across multi-item scales was good to excellent (ω range 0.78–.96). Data were analysed using structural equation modeling. Results There were significant relationships between intentions and among perceived costs, benefits, personal factors, and organizational structures. The structural model fit was acceptable (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03) and showed that personal responsibility, group identification, and role-model favorability/similarity positively predicted perceived benefits, whereas organizational support/protection negatively predicted perceived costs. In turn, perceived benefits were associated with more positive attitudes and greater perceived behavioral control, which was the strongest direct predictor of whistleblowing intentions. Conclusions The findings underscore the complex interplay between personal and organizational factors in shaping attitudes and perceived behavioral control toward whistleblowing, ultimately influencing intentions. ",

keywords = "Attitudes, Doping, Intentions, Performance enhancing drugs, Whistleblowing",

author = "Garafallia Daroglou and Vassilis Barkoukis and Fairs, \{Lukas R. W.\} and John Toner and Luke Jones and Perry, \{John L.\} and Micle, \{Andrei V.\} and Theodorou, \{Nikolaos C.\} and Sabina Shakhverdieva and Marius Stoicescu and Constantin Pompiliu-Nicolae and Vesic, \{Milica V.\} and Nenad Dikic and Marija Andjelkovic and \{Munoz-Guerra Revilla\}, Jesus and \{Garcia Grimau\}, Elena and Martinez, \{Miguel A.\} and \{Argaya Amigo\}, Javier and Anne Schomoller and Nicholls, \{Adam R.\}",

note = "Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2025",

year = "2025",

month = dec,

day = "31",

doi = "10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181",

language = "English",

volume = "5",

journal = "Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health",

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TY - JOUR

T1 - Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries

T2 - A Social Cognitive Perspective

AU - Daroglou, Garafallia

AU - Barkoukis, Vassilis

AU - Fairs, Lukas R. W.

AU - Toner, John

AU - Jones, Luke

AU - Perry, John L.

AU - Micle, Andrei V.

AU - Theodorou, Nikolaos C.

AU - Shakhverdieva, Sabina

AU - Stoicescu, Marius

AU - Pompiliu-Nicolae, Constantin

AU - Vesic, Milica V.

AU - Dikic, Nenad

AU - Andjelkovic, Marija

AU - Munoz-Guerra Revilla, Jesus

AU - Garcia Grimau, Elena

AU - Martinez, Miguel A.

AU - Argaya Amigo, Javier

AU - Schomoller, Anne

AU - Nicholls, Adam R.

PY - 2025/12/31

Y1 - 2025/12/31

N2 - Background Doping in sports is a worldwide problem which affects the integrity of sports and can endanger the physical and psychological health of athletes. Whistleblowing represents a method for detecting doping offences that may otherwise have gone undetected, but our understanding of whistleblowing against doping offences is limited. The purpose of this paper was to identify whether personal and social psychological variables were associated with intentions to report doping in sport. Method 1146 active athletes aged ≥15 years, regularly training and participating in competitions participated to the study. Athletes were informed about study aims and gave informed consent. The sample completed measures related to organizational support, protection and costs of whistleblowing behaviours, justice/legitimacy, personal responsibility, group identification, similarity/favourability, personal benefits, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, and intentions. Internal consistency across multi-item scales was good to excellent (ω range 0.78–.96). Data were analysed using structural equation modeling. Results There were significant relationships between intentions and among perceived costs, benefits, personal factors, and organizational structures. The structural model fit was acceptable (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03) and showed that personal responsibility, group identification, and role-model favorability/similarity positively predicted perceived benefits, whereas organizational support/protection negatively predicted perceived costs. In turn, perceived benefits were associated with more positive attitudes and greater perceived behavioral control, which was the strongest direct predictor of whistleblowing intentions. Conclusions The findings underscore the complex interplay between personal and organizational factors in shaping attitudes and perceived behavioral control toward whistleblowing, ultimately influencing intentions.

AB - Background Doping in sports is a worldwide problem which affects the integrity of sports and can endanger the physical and psychological health of athletes. Whistleblowing represents a method for detecting doping offences that may otherwise have gone undetected, but our understanding of whistleblowing against doping offences is limited. The purpose of this paper was to identify whether personal and social psychological variables were associated with intentions to report doping in sport. Method 1146 active athletes aged ≥15 years, regularly training and participating in competitions participated to the study. Athletes were informed about study aims and gave informed consent. The sample completed measures related to organizational support, protection and costs of whistleblowing behaviours, justice/legitimacy, personal responsibility, group identification, similarity/favourability, personal benefits, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, and intentions. Internal consistency across multi-item scales was good to excellent (ω range 0.78–.96). Data were analysed using structural equation modeling. Results There were significant relationships between intentions and among perceived costs, benefits, personal factors, and organizational structures. The structural model fit was acceptable (CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.03) and showed that personal responsibility, group identification, and role-model favorability/similarity positively predicted perceived benefits, whereas organizational support/protection negatively predicted perceived costs. In turn, perceived benefits were associated with more positive attitudes and greater perceived behavioral control, which was the strongest direct predictor of whistleblowing intentions. Conclusions The findings underscore the complex interplay between personal and organizational factors in shaping attitudes and perceived behavioral control toward whistleblowing, ultimately influencing intentions.

KW - Attitudes

KW - Doping

KW - Intentions

KW - Performance enhancing drugs

KW - Whistleblowing

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105019070276

U2 - 10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181

DO - 10.1016/j.etdah.2025.100181

M3 - Article

SN - 2667-1182

VL - 5

JO - Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health

JF - Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health

M1 - 100181

ER -

Athletes’ Beliefs about Whistleblowing Doping Misconduct from Six European Countries: A Social Cognitive Perspective

Abstract

Bibliographical note

Funding

UN SDGs

Keywords

ASJC Scopus subject areas

Access to Document

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Cite this