Adoption of demand-responsive transportation (DRT) among car-users: who, how, when and why?

Demand-responsive transportation (DRT) is emerging as a mode that can enhance public transit and reduce reliance on private vehicles. Achieving wider social equity and environmental benefits goals requires DRT services to serve a wider geographic and demographic area while still maintaining commercial viability. One solution is for DRT to attract a broader range of ‘choice’ users, including private car owners. Technology adoption theory proposes several potentially significant factors, but to date, limited attention has been paid to the psychological motivators and barriers to DRT adoption among this large market of car users. This study seeks to fill that gap by analysing the demographic and behavioural characteristics of individuals with and without private car access who already use DRT. We paired two attitudinal and behavioural datasets together: (i) digitised travel survey data (socio-demographics, travel reason, alternative modes, reason for switching to DRT) collected from 6,438 DRT trips across 23 microtransit and paratransit services in the USA and Canada; and (ii) a high-resolution dataset on the exact trip data (time of travel, trip duration, trip frequency) associated with each survey response. Our analysis revealed that people using DRT who otherwise have access to a car are younger, wealthier, more likely to be male, and less likely to have disabilities. They primarily use DRT for non-discretionary travel, such as healthcare, work, and education, suggesting DRT shifts trips away from private cars rather than inducing new journeys. Regression analysis shows access to a vehicle is a stronger predictor of trip length than demographic attributes of age, ethnicity and disability (but not income). These findings underscore DRT’s potential to reduce road congestion and environmental pollution, but increased adoption by car users raises a potential social equity dilemma: if DRT systems evolve to accommodate more privileged ‘choice’ user demographics, marginalised groups risk being underserved, exacerbating existing transit challenges. As DRT expands, planning to serve dual markets will be essential to ensure it serves those with the greatest need while attracting and satisfying a diverse user base to achieve longer-term societal benefits. Transparent data sharing and user-focused research are critical to refining DRT strategies that balance competing priorities.